According
to modern social anthologists like E.Pritchard, M. Wilson, E. Ardenal
there is a difference between witchcraft and
sorcery. E.Evans-Pritchard explains
that witchcraft is conceived as being innate part of the personality, a trait
that can be inherited by either from father to son or mother to daughter
(unilinear decent). But sorcery is learned and it is regarded as deliberate use
of magic through spells, ceremonies e.t.c. Among Azande (a tribe around the
South of Sudan) the former referred as
'mangu', a term translated by Evans-Pritchard as witchcraft and the latter 'ngua'
as sorcery which is something you perform by knowing the appropriate
techniques.(1)
Some authors disagree on using the term either witchcraft or sorcery
because both terms can have strong pejorative connotation. They suggest a more
neutral term like "occult powers", that would do more justice, because
both witchcraft and sorcery can have a negative or a positive aspects. J.D.Krige
notes that "sorcery is simply lawful means put to unlawful ends, the same
techniques may be moral and approved in one context but immoral and outlawed in
another."(2) Among Nyakyusa (a tribe in Tanzania) for example as M. Wilson
explains, it is the python (isota) in the belly that can be
used to bewitch someone as well as to defend against evil forces. It
gives certain powers like to harm human and cattle by tramping, wounding and
kicking them. The difference between a witch and a defender is in the quality
and quantity of pythons, witches can have several pythons but a defender only
one and also defender's python is invisible in the autopsy (performed in order to
find whether one was a witch). In the Nyakyusa there was a clear distinction
between the legal and the illegal use of occult powers. Wilson points out that
witchcraft (ubolosi) was sharply distinguished from sorcery (ubutege),
destructive
use of medicines with a physiological
manipulation of certain materials.(3)
Among Azande witchcraft (mangu) is a psychic act, Azande call it mbisimo
mangu, the soul of witchcraft. It has a consciousness in itself, where it
can be active without you having any knowledge of it and there isn't much you
can do about it. Witchcraft is present everywhere. It plays significant part in
every daily activity, like family life, hunting, fishing, etc. Witchcraft is a
substance within the body, mainly in the abdomen, being part of the body grows
with it. Consequently children have a small quantity of witchcraft matter in
their stomach, on the contrary the elderly have big and powerful mangu
substance. Azande describe this as an oval blackish swelling or a bag which can
contain various objects. It is beneath
the xiphoid cartilage and is attached to the liver. This can be visible during
the autopsy in the stomach of the
diseased where when they press it this substance bursts through with a pop. It
can also be diagnosed in the alive through oracles.(4)
The soul of a witch can leave the body any time day and night, although
witches are mainly active during the night. The dispatched soul of a witch flies
around the village looking for victims. The witchcraft travels in the form of
light, Azande describe it as "witchcraft is like fire, it lights a
light".(5) This can be seen only
by a witch during the day and a witch-doctor,
but during the night it is visible to everyone. When a man sees a light
of witchcraft throws a charcoal under his bed in order that he does not suffer
from seeing it.
Evans-Pritchard writes that he had been witness of
witchcraft in action, only once. Where around midnight when he was
studying he had seen a light traveling towards the hut of a villager.
Speculating on the incident E.Pritchard says that he hadn't been able to trace
that light, it could really have been someone with a torch who was going to
defecate. Accidentally enough the very next day there was a passing in that
particular hut.
Evans-Pritchard
notes that, he was well assured that, that was indeed a witchracft.
Among Azande witches prefer to eat human flesh, particularly they prefer
the souls of the organs. People can be killed this way. E.Pritchard quotes a
villager explaining this painful process, "witches arise and beat their drum
of witchcraft. The membrane of this drum is human skin. They stretch human skin
across it so that they can sound their call on it to summon the members of their
order. Their drum call is 'human flesh, human flesh, human flesh'".(6) They
mainly prefer the ones with ill health. A witch who hates that person goes with
the company of other witches to the hut of the future victim. Where the
particular witch opens the victim's door, takes him out of his bed and throws
him outside. Consequently all of them take small pots and start cooking that
person's flesh. The man of course can't stand this treatment
falls ill and dies.
In the Nyakyusa witches like eating their victims live. Moreover because
of their greed, they long for milk
and meat (the most prized food). Also, they can shoot a person causing pain in
the place where the missile hit. In Nyakyusa the "breath of men" can
cause prolonged illness although not always death. It can 'throttle' or
'trample' the victim where the bewitched can wake up, more less conscious
about what happened to him or her.(7)
Through oracles and witch-doctor, one can understand by whom he has been
bewitched and consequently take the appropriate action against it. Among Lobedu
(a Bantu tribe, of the far N.E.Transvaal) anti-witchcraft devices are quite
common, specially treated bones can protect a person against malevolent powers.
Medicated pegs can also protect the village from flying witches.(8)
As referred previously, when a man observes a persisting illness he
should look for the responsible witch by either employing an oracle or going to
a medicine man. The next stage is of accusing someone as being the responsible
witch for the misfortune.
Although it is rather difficult to distinguish an alive witch from the
population at large, it seems that they share certain common attributes. Azande
people think that there are external signs signifying whether one is a witch or
not. Azande say, "one knows a witch by his red eyes. When one sees such a
man one says he is a witch and this is true also of a woman with red eyes. But
at present what happens is this: if they consult the poison oracle about a man
and the oracle says that he is a witch the kinsmen of the sick man give him a
fowl's wing that he may blow water on it. That man is a witch."(9)
Among Azande and other African tribes, the persons who are at most risk
of being accused of witchcraft are the ones who are rather unpopular and
isolated from others. This can be a man who envy
his neighbour's wealth and well being or the a man who doesn't talk too
much or doesn't like to take part in social activities. Also she can be a woman
who does not look after the elderly in her family or the one who cooks something
but does not want to share it with her neighbours. Witches and sorcerers
generally are regarded as sinister characters. They are people with ill
will toward their fellow men, they particularly enjoy malevolent acts. Whenever
they have success with their evil deeds they gather together and have big,
rather ghoulish feast.
In an incident of misfortune, prolonged illness or death people in the
family or close relatives or neighbours are anxious to find the responsible
witch. The family hit by misfortune would consult different oracles, in case
that the oracle wasn't so clear they would go and ask to the witch-doctor. When
the liable witch is found he or she
either is accused directly face to
face or indirectly. M.Wilson explaining the way that the Nyakyusa react in
situations like these says: "the men of the village cut a banana stem and
wrap banana leaves round it, and go at night and put it in front of his
door..... without ever accusing him to his face of being a witch". After
the next day people who notice the leaves say one to another that the witch has
been caught, loudly that everyone in the village can hear, including the witch.
Subsequently the witch finds impossible to bear this and flees away to another
chief. Also a strong vengeance magic can be employed by the victim or the
family of the victim. This is rather dangerous
and complicated affair.
Evans-Pritchard notes that in pro-European days the witches who had been
accused would be executed directly or they would be required to compensate the
victim. Although witches were seldom killed, unless he or she had committed
repeated murders. E.Pritchard notes that, it was very difficult
for him to obtain information on vengeance magic, because not anyone knew
about this unless you were member of the victim's household. It is rather
strange that the casualty in witchcraft cases is not the victim per se, but the
person who is accused of witchcraft.
A strange phenomena of self
accusations, confessions of witchcraft has been observed among few W.African
societies such as Effutu (Southern Ghana). Here the person herself (most of them
happen to be women) confesses that she had bewitched someone like her own
children, brothers, sisters but rarely husbands and co-wives. Because here also
the witchcraft (ogyapa) is uncontrollable
action, one may have bewitched someone without having any knowledge of it.
Therefore self accusations can make sense and
they are regarded not so shameful.(10)
The person who feels that has bewitches someone can seek help from the
traditional priest. After that she undergoes a process of treatment which can be
rather prolonged affair. Several consequent confessions in the witch doctor's
shrine, where also she has to spend a period, in order to purify herself. This
is of course long and costly affair, but the costs are met by the husband.
R.W.Wyllie notes that anthropologists did not pay particular attention to
witchcraft confessions and had explained it taking into account only the accused
person's point of view. Self confession witchcraft cases has been reported in
Ghanaian studies by Debrynner (1961) et. al.; it exists in Banyang of West
Cameroon and also in Cross River people. In Southern Ghana as Prof. Marwick
notes accusations of witchcraft are rarely made. Where a
person who thinks that she has been bewitched can seek protection from a
traditional priest, who can supply an anti-witchcraft medicine.
As regards why one accuses oneself of witchcraft R.W.Wyllie explains that
most of the self confessed were women, explanation of this would not be possible
through the structural-functional analysis and it would probably require a
ethno-psychiatric interpretation. Although according to structural-functional
analysis, Lewis introduces the concept of 'peripheral possession'. By this he
means that the socially deprived groups, use these kind of possessions by
spirits in order to make an attempt to manipulate and extract support from the
ones in dominant positions.(11)
Edwin Ardener giving his account on witchcraft accusations among Bakweri
(West Cameroon, Bantu speaking people), notes that the belief in witchcraft (liemba)
it can be related to the changes in sociological and economical field, belief in
liemba maybe subject to fashion.
Before the German invasion the Bakweri were living in scattered
settlements, in a rainy volcanic and very fertile area. After the German
conquest in 1894 there was recognition of the fertility
of soil where there was an attempt to develop plantations of bananas, tea etc.
After 1894 there was an increase of alienation, where in 1900 restrictions and
reservations for Bakweri was established. The introduction of new food in 1890
by the missionaries, xanthosoma cocoyam, had already changed the local
economy.(12)
Following the invasion, new changes were introduced by Germans. There was
a systematical tidying up of the Bakweri reservations, and new different types of
plantations as referred above. Because there wasn't enough local population to
work as labourers in the land, consequent to that there was an influx of people
from outside. The immigrant workers outnumbered Bacweri considerably, by three
to one. This brought with social changes, like predominance of male population
forced the local women to prostitution and concubinage.
In 1914 Germans succeeded by British, pro-Bakweri policy started. By that
time the Bakweri had acquired unprogressive reputation. They were surviving by
letting out their land to foreigners, without making any profit and living in
poverty. The women had long left the men on their own, the place was looking
deserted and the huts were fulling down. Later in 50s Bakweri suddenly stopped
being apathetic and made fortunes in peasant banana trading.
Parallel with these changes an alteration as regards the belief in liemba
has been observed.
In the beginning they thought that they were defeated by Germans because
they had hanged two women for liemba.
Before
the Europeans every village had a witch hanging three. Bakweri attitude to
witchcraft and property were closely bounded. In 1953 (the period of stagnation)
a new kind of witchcraft appeared, nyongo. This person was a prosperous man and
a member of witchcraft associations. He could cause death
and could be recognised by his tin house built by zombies. A dying person
should name a nyongo person. At the time there was deep seated fear of building
a new house, because of the fear of nyongo accusation.
After 1953 Bakweri took up commercial farming and money was coming in;
the belief in nyongo began to clear. Changes in the moral was followed by
changes in economic circumstances and consequent change in the supernatural
beliefs were observed. Bakweri were judging the change in
witchcraft beliefs as being more important from any other changes.
A
schematic presentation of economical changes and
|
Phase
Date Economy
Belief I
Pre-1850 Pre-xanthoma,
?
isolate II
1850- 1894 Xanthoma
No nyongo
trade goods. III
1894-1954 Marginal to
Nyongo
plantations IV 1954-1961 Banana boom Nyongo controlled
|
Source: E. Ardener, "Witchcraft, economics and the continuity of
belief". In M. Douglas, Witchcraft, confessions and accusations".
Page:154
E. Ardener explains that, despite the different circumstances Bakweri did
not abandon their beliefs in liemba. Only this time the exorcized zombies became
powerless.
Witchcraft can be regarded as "the projection of conflicts that in a
non-aggressive social environment are driven underground because they are not
permitted to free expression in open dissension".(13) It occurs in
situations where there is social tension and
it is a way of channeling the conflicts that otherwise would go unnoticed.
The witchcraft accusations give an excellent means to outcast and to
ostracize the ones who do not conform to the rules and regulations of the
society they in. On the other hand fear of
witchcraft accusation
controls the ones who aim at higher positions in the social srata and the ones
who became rich but do not want to share with others.
R.M.Kesing writing on the force of social control through witchcraft says
that, a "witchcraft accusations, which may in some societies assign
responsibility for every death that occurs, give a splendid means to get rid of
those who cheat deviate, or succeed too much - and a splendid incentive to be an
upstanding citizen. Fear that witchcraft will be directed against one makes
conformity to be norms of social life strategically wise".(14)
A witch is an enemy of the of the society he or she lives in.
Evans-Prichard notes that: "a witch attacks a man when motivated by hatred,
envy, jealousy and greed"(15) Although he notes that the function of
witchcraft is firstly a way of explaining the misfortune and afterward in
explaining the personal relations.
A man among Azande who suspects that one of his wives is a witch, he
would be careful handling her in order not to offend. Also in the society one
lives, one does not know who is or who isn't a witch. Therefore one should be
attentive and careful in his social relations, with his neighbours, friends etc.
Among Nyakyusa "a witch is the person whose character makes him to
some extend isolated and unpopular".(16) These people treated with less
courtesy and they are rarely invited in celebration or sharing some food or
drink. If one woman looks after her father in law her children would be
protected from witchcraft. Although that would depend on the good-will of the
father-in-law who has to give his blessing an to express his good-will. The
punishment of the witches
also is in relation to the severity of the bewitched person or animal's
condition.
Among Nyakyusa the British administration tried to limit the use of
witchcraft a method of social control and tried to establish a Western model in
legal procedures. Here most of the local population thought that Westerners were
not really prohibiting witchcraft but allowing by not permitting witchcraft
accusations openly.
The Nyakyusa look back on the past days with nostalgia, where "the
defenders" against the witches could do
they work properly, although still they try to work but silently, because
of the fear of Europeans. Many Nyakyusa accuse the Europeans with hypocrisy as
the wife of the Christian chief explains it to M Wilson:"you are
dissembling like all Europeans, you don't want to admit the reality of
witchcraft. You are dissembling."(17)
In almost all African societies witchcraft seems common denominator in
explaining unfortunate events . Witchcraft "is a natural philosophy by
which the relations between men and unfortunate events explained and a ready
stereotyped means of reacting to such events".(18)
There some aspects of witchcraft which can be
described as having a rather positive contribution to the societies where
it is prevalent. Some anthropologists argue that
witchcraft has a social function. Here J. Krige notes that witchcraft is
not a mere meaningless superstition and unreason over reason. Krige gives a
particular example in the Lobedu and notes that "witches and sorcerers, so
far from playing the role lf unreason, make a rational contribution to the fulfillment
of men's needs and purposes"(19) Explaining that witchcraft is a way of understanding the
universe and trying to reason for failures and frustrations.
Because witchcraft and sorcery operates
through human and man can be taken under control so can be witchcraft.
Therefore one can have control over his fate and feel somehow secured as
far as his social and private life concerned.
According to the Malinowskian functionalism witchcraft can be regarded as
rational. Occult can be understood if we put it in a wider context; as an
explanation of the peoples fears about future and unforeseeable accidents. It
makes sure in a way the success, where the results of behaviour cannot be
predicted.
1-
E.Evans-Pritchart,'Witchcraft oracles and magic among
the Azande' (1937)pp 9,21. Oxford Press.
2-
J.D.Krige 'The social function of witchcraft'(1947), In
M. Marwick (ed.) Witchcraft and sorcery p 267 Penguin
Books.
3-
M.Wilson, 'Good Company'(1951) p 21 Oxford
Press.
4-
E.Evans-Pritchart,'Witchcraft oracles and magic among the Azande' (1937)p 22 Oxford Press.
5-
Ibid, p 34
6-
Ibid, p 35
7-
M.Wilson, 'Good Company'(1951) p 91 Oxford
Press.
8-
J.D.Krige 'The social function of witchcraft'(1947),In
M. Marwick (ed.) Witchcraft and sorcery p 263 Penguin
Books.
9-
E.Evans-Pritchart,'Witchcraft oracles and magic among
the Azande' (1937)p 23 Oxford Press.
10-J.D.Krige'The
social function of witchcraft'(1947),In M.
Marwick (ed.) Witchcraft and sorcery p 263 Penguin
Books.
11-R.W.Wyllie,
'Introspective witchcraft among the Effutu of
Southern Ghana',(1973) In M. Marwick (ed.)pp 136,
137
12-
E.Evans-Pritchart,'Witchcraft oracles and magic among the Azande' (1937)p 23
Oxford Press.
13-
M.Wilson, 'Good Company'(1951) p 109 Oxford
Press.
14-R.W.Wyllie,
'Introspective witchcraft among the Effutu of
Southern Ghana',(1973) In M. Marwick (ed.)
Witchcraft and Sorcery
p 132 Penguin Books
15-E.
Ardener,'Witchcraft economics and the continuity of
belief'. (1970) In M. Marwick (ed.) Witchcraft and
Sorcery. Penguin Books
16-R.M.Keesing
'Cultural Anthropology'(1982) p316
17-E.Evans-Pritchart,'Witchcraft
oracles and magic among the Azande'
(1937)p 63 Oxford Press.
18-E.Evans-Pritchart,'Witchcraft
oracles and magic among the Azande'
(1937)p 63 Oxford Press.
19-J.D.Krige'The
social function of witchcraft'(1947),In M.
Marwick (ed.) Witchcraft and Sorcery p 263 Penguin
Books.
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Last updated: 18/04/01